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Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of , particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC, across the Mediterranean Sea and the .

The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction (see ) away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or (, ), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong , functioning independently of their metropolis.

Motives
Greek colonisation was typically motivated by a combination of factors, depending on the context. Many Greek city-states experienced strong economic growth with consequent of the motherland, such that the existing territory of these Greek city-states could no longer support a growing polity. The areas where the Greeks would try to were hospitable and fertile.
(2013). 9781444334890 .

As well as demographic pressure, environmental factors could prompt the colonisation of other lands. 's account of the founding of the colony of Cyrene in Libya tells of social unrest on the island of (the colony's ), caused by severe overpopulation and a prolonged drought.

(2025). 9780143107545, Penguin Classics.
Herodotus provided two different accounts for the founding of Cyrene. The version of the Cyreneans emphasised the divine appointment of Battus (the founder) by the oracle of Apollo to establish a colony in Libya. Herodotus' inclusion of religious prophecies and mythical elements reflected a bias towards the role of religion as one of the factors that contributed to colonisation. In contrast, the version provided by the Therans focused on their King Grinnus (or Grinus) and his instruction to send Battus to set up a colony in Libya. Even though this account was more realistic, it might also have served as propaganda for the Therans to maintain their historical and cultural ties with the Cyreneans for economic and political benefits.

Fertile lands in the are limited. mentioned that early Greek city states often fought for quality soil used in agriculture by conducting violent raids. This placed more strain on the general populace of city states, which made it hard for communities to settle and encouraged migration.

Another reason for Greek colonisation was the expansion of influence. As ancient Greeks in the and developed a sense of identity, they had the desire to spread their culture through colonisation. During the early days of Greek colonisation (8th to 7th centuries BCE), the apoikia (ἀποικία) was one of the most common types of Greek colony.

(1995). 9789004099913, E.J. Brill.
Even though these colonies were usually independent of the metropolis and had their own governance, they usually modelled their systems on those of their mother city. Furthermore, apoikiai (ᾰ̓ποικῐ́αι) usually maintained strong cultural ties with the metropolis through their mutual heritage; this allowed mainstream Greek culture to spread to native populations.

's account on the founding of the colony of was driven by the invitation of the Sybarites to establish a panhellenic colony from various Greek city states. Archeological evacuations have uncovered ruined Greek structures and artifacts which might give insights into the city's Greek origin. Moreover, the Athenians were eager to expand their influence and seek allies during the Peloponnesian war. account of the Athenian's attempt to colonise during the Peloponnesian war was due to the support from Sicilian cities which highlights the importance of establishing alliances to expand their own sphere of influence.

In some cases, some colonies were founded to escape from civil unrest or political instability. For instance, identity crisis in the metropolis caused political and social tensions, which resulted in expulsion of certain groups. mentioned the founding of by the Parthenians, who were the descendants of women but were denied full rights citizenship. After a failed attempt to plot against the local citizens, they were urged to find the colony of to prevent further conflict. Strabo's account of the founding of by the Parthenians aligned with other historical context, such as the , which gave birth to the Parthenians. By sending one of the parties away, social conflicts could be alleviated in the mother city. Modern researchers also suggest factors such as fleeing from a crime or even exploration could motivate others to set up new colonies.

Modern scholar suggests the recognition of economic and strategic value leads to further colonisation. Many colonies were established along the Mediterranean and as trading hubs and centers of commerce. These colonies were called Emporion (ἐμπόριον), which were usually founded in strategic locations that allowed them to control and facilitate certain trade routes. Over time, they were transformed into important trading centres. For example, Emporion colonies were set up along the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily due to the abundance of natural resources and fertile lands. This helped facilitate maritime trade and expand their own trade network. Moreover, they could regulate taxes as they developed into larger colonies, which could contribute to the long-term economic prosperity of the metropolis. Other colonies were established along the coastline as military outposts to protect the trade routes. The main goal of the Sicilian expedition undertaken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war was to capture Syracuse, a major strategic point and ally of the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League. According to , the Athenians were also attracted to the wealth and resources available there even though it was exaggerated. Furthermore, He claimed that the capture of would solidify their power in the Mediterranean world. Even though overemphasised personal factors, such as the desire for wealth and glory of individuals, modern scholars recognise the strategic importance of such expedition that would help shape the decision made by those individuals. By capturing , they would gain dominance over trade routes in the Mediterranean. This demonstrates that the Athenians were likely aware of the strategic and trade benefits that were brought by colonies.

During the 5th to 4th century BCE, a new type of colony called Cleruchies (κληρουχία) was established by the . Unlike other Greek colonies, Cleruchies were politically dependent on Athens, where its governance was modelled after Athens and its citizen retained Athenian citizenship. Moreover, citizens living inside these colonies were granted lands in exchange for military service and had to pay taxes to Athens.

(2025). 9780715637845, Duckworth.

There are debates on the other motives of Cleruchies. Ancient sources suggest that Cleruchies were set up to alleviate poverty by giving land to the poor. 's account implies Cleruchies were established as a social welfare measure by distributing land to the poor. Moreover, there were ancient inscriptions in the Cleruchy of Brea that intends for land allocation only for the lower and middle classes, excluding higher property classes. In contrary, some ancient Greek grave markers in the Cleruchy of suggest that wealthy individuals resided in the colony. Archaeological evidence on the site of Vrachos on suggests that it was not only populated by the poor. For example, the presence of 200 non-Athenian mercenaries and strong fortification, which suggest heavy economic and military investments in the area. Other modern scholars suggest that the motive was to safeguard grain fleets and Cleruchies were set up along the route to the , where the land was more fertile than in Greece. Some islands, such as , contributed significantly to Athens through rent from settlements. Hence, Cleruchies were important to Athens not only as strategic locations but also as a source of wealth in the form of agriculture and rents, which was vital during the Peloponnesian war.

Characteristics
The founding of the colonies was typically an organised enterprise by the (mother city), although in many cases it could involve collaboration with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness. The mission always included a leader, or , nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parcelled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.

Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout the and regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.

While the term ἐποικισμός referred to the founding of a new settlement or colony, the term ἐνοικισμός was used to describe the settlement of Greeks among native populations, as in the case of the Greek quarter at . THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY - The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C. - Edited by JOHN BOARDMAN F.B.A. (Lincoln Professor of Classical Archaeology and Art in the University of Oxford), N. G. L. HAMMOND F.B.A. (Professor Emeritus of Greek University of Bristol)

History
The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when the founded in Southern Italy and in , Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies of , , and Naxos.

At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the but colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as the Ionians and Corinthians. The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy, and on the . founded Cyrene and , and founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.

Locations
Macedonia and Thrace
Numerous colonies were founded in , chiefly in the region of but also in the region of .

Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice were (which was settled in collaboration with the ), , Mende, , and Cleonae in the peninsula of . Other important colonies in Chalcidice were Acanthus, founded by colonists from and , a colony of . with the help of the Athenian Callistratus of Aphidnae founded the city of Datus. During the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians with the Hagnon, son of Nikias founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north of in .

Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast of . Important colonies were , and Abdera. The Milesians also founded Abydos and Cardia on the and Rhaedestus in . The colonised the island of , becoming the source of its name. Finally, the colonised under the leadership of the and father of the poet , Telesicles.

In 340 BC, while Alexander the Great was regent of Macedon, he founded the city of Alexandropolis Maedica after defeating a local Thracian tribe.

Magna Graecia: mainland Italy and Sicily
, , ; ; , , with the same meaning; , . was the name given by the to the coastal areas of in the present-day Italian regions of , , , and which were extensively settled by Greeks.
(2014). 9781108078757, Cambridge University Press. .

Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.

(2025). 9780892367511, Getty Publications. .

The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of the aimed at the Gulf of Naples who, after (on the isle of ), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, founded nearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina, in Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast, .STEFANIA DE VIDO 'Capitani coraggiosi'. Gli Eubei nel Mediterraneo C. Bearzot, F. Landucci, in Tra il mare e il continente: l'isola d'Eubea (2013) ISBN 978-88-343-2634-3

The second wave was of the who concentrated initially on the Ionian coast (, , , ),Strabo 6.1.12Herodotus 8.47 shortly before 720BC. At an unknown date between the 8th and 6th centuries BC the Athenians, of Ionian lineage, founded (near today's ).Strabo, , 6.1.10

In Sicily the Euboeans later founded Naxos, which became the base for the founding of the cities of , and . They were accompanied by small numbers of and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation. in The strongest of the Sicilian colonies was Syracuse, an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians.

Refugees from founded which evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area. founded and ; founded ; founded together with the and together with ; the founded Epizephyrian Locris. According to legend, which was between and the river was founded by .

Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes from Timpone Della Motta which shows influence of Greek style in pottery.

Many cities in the region became in turn metropoleis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city of in the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony of . Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies while founded the colony of . founded its own colony, . in

With colonisation, was exported to Italy with its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, and its traditions of the independent . An original Hellenic civilisation soon developed, and later interacted with the native civilisations. One of the most important cultural transplants was the / variety of the which was adopted by the ; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the , which became the most widely used alphabet in the world.

City colspan="4" Https://www.locriantica.it/storia/per_greco1.htm< /ref>
ThucydidesEusebiusJeromeOthers
CumaeΚύμη--1050(?)-
MetapontumΜεταπόντιον-773(?)--
ZancleΖάγκλη-757/756-756
NaxosΝάξος734735741-
SyracuseΣυρακκούσες733733738/737733
LentiniΛεοντῖνοι728---
CataniaΚατάνη728733737/736-
MegaraΜέγαρα727---
ReggioΕρυθρά / Ρήγιον---c. 730
MilazzoΜύλαι-715(?)716(?)-
SybarisΣύβαρις-708-707709-708721/720
CrotoneΚρότων-709-709/708
TarantoΤάρας--706-
LocriΛοκροί Ἐπιζεφύριοι-673679c. 700
PoseidoniaΠοσειδωνία---700(?)
GelaΓέλα688688691/690-
CauloniaΚαυλωνία---c. 675
Acre 663---
CasmeneΚασμέναι643---
SelinunteΣελινούς627757(?)650/649650
HimeraΙμέρα---648
LipariΜελιγουνίς-627(?)629(?)580/576
CamarinaΚαμάρινα598598/597601/600598/596
AgrigentoΑκράγας580--580/576

Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Illyria
The region of the and that of were colonised strictly by . The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth included , , , , , and - all in modern-day western Greece.

The Corinthians also founded important colonies in , which evolved into important cities, Apollonia and , in present-day Albania. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.

(2025). 9789047442448, Brill. .
Nymphaeum was another Greek colony in Illyria. The of founded the city of Thronion at the Illyria.

Further west, colonists from the Greek city-state in 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-day Stari Grad in Croatia. In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of Syracuse Dionysius I founded the colony Issa on the modern-day island of Vis, and traders from Issa then went on to found emporia in Tragurion () and Epetion (Stobreč) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC.

In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered in on the eastern tip of the island of Korčula in modern-day which talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known as Lumbarda Psephisma. Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around the 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such as Issa and Pharos.

Black Sea and Propontis
Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies.Ancient Europe 8000 B.C-A.D 1000 Vol. 2 The colonisation of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such as , and . The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea and were founded in the 7th century BC.

The first phase (2nd half of the 7th c. BC)
In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities of Astacus in Bithynia, and which occupied a privileged position. Miletus founded and the Phocaeans .*

On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities of and a little later, . A little farther north in today's the Milesians founded the cities of Histria, and .

In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony was Sinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC. Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region: , , , , Cromne, Pteria, , etc.

Further north from the the Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modern ) which evolved into the colony of in the next century.

The second phase (6th c. BC)
The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation: in 560-550 BC.Hind, J., "Megarian Colonization in the Western Half of the Black Sea: Sister‑ and Daughter‑Cities of Herakleia", in Tsetskhladze, G.R. (ed.), The Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Area. Historical Interpretation of Archaeology, (Historia Einzelschriften 121) (Stuttgart 1998), pp. 135‑137

On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start with and (modern ). In about 560 BC the Milesians founded in the region of modern . On the peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities of , Nymphaeum and . On the Sea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they founded (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine and , the last being a colony of the .

On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times as , today in Georgia and the autonomous region of , the Greeks founded the cities of Phasis and Dioscouris. The latter was called Sebastopolis by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today as .

Heraclea Pontica founded on the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC.Ewa Stanecka, Callatis as a Seaport, Studies in Ancient Art and Civilisation, 10.12797/SAAC.17.2013.17.28, 17, (325-333), (2013)

Later Colonies
Only a few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which included (modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC.Herodotus 6.33Hind, J., "Megarian Colonization in the Western Half of the Black Sea: Sister‑ and Daughter‑Cities of Herakleia", in Tsetskhladze, G.R. (ed.), The Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Area. Historical Interpretation of Archaeology (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998), pp. 137‑138. Heraclea Pontica founded Chersonesus Taurica in Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC.

The ancient Greek settlement called of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea was discovered in 2018.

Wider Mediterranean
The Greek colonies expanded as far as the Iberian Peninsula and .

Africa
In North Africa, on the peninsula of , colonists from Thera founded Kyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region. Other colonies in Kyrenaika later included Barca, Euesperides (modern ), , and Apollonia.

By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony in had been founded, .Strabo, Geographia 17.1.18, cited in The gave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of the , founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of the Persian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.

2023 archaeological findings in at Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend the city.

mentions (Μεσχέλα), a city on the northern coast of Africa, founded by the Greeks after the .

In , King of established a Greek colony within the city. Strabo, Geography, 17.3.13

Asia
At the mouth of the at the site of along the Syrian coast, a Greek trading colony, of unknown name, was established by the around 825 B.C. Nearby, had also Greek presence from the similar period and is almost certainly the location of the colony of .
(1997). 9780816031115, Facts On File.
THE CAMBRIDGE ANCIENT HISTORY - The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C. - Edited by JOHN BOARDMAN F.B.A. (Lincoln Professor of Classical Archaeology and Art in the University of Oxford), N. G. L. HAMMOND F.B.A. (Professor Emeritus of Greek University of Bristol) Additionally, archaeological evidence suggests that the Greeks established a settlement at around the same time they arrived at Al Mina. The Origins of the Kouros, Rebecca Ann Dunham, University of Florida

Archaeological discoveries of Greek findings as early as the ninth century BC across the Near East indicate a Greek presence in the region. Finds at sites such as , , , Tell Abu Hawam and others suggest active trade, cultural exchange, and possibly Greek settlement.

Rest of the Mediterranean
On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians founded on the coast of . Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also founded in and in . The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians founded in this region and later the even more distant Hemeroskopeion.

List of Greek colonies before Alexander the Great (pre-336 BC)
Modern [[Albania/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: albania"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Albania">albania">
Modern [[Albania
AL1. Nymphaeum AL2. AL3. Apollonia AL4. Aulon AL5. AL6. AL7. AL8. Thronion

Modern
AR1.

Modern [[Bulgaria/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: bulgari"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Bulgaria">bulgari">
Modern [[Bulgaria
* writes that some say that the city of Bizone belongs to the barbarians, while others to be a Greek colony of .

BUL1. BUL2. Odessos BUL3. / Antheia BUL4. BUL5. BUL6. BUL7. BUL8. BUL9. BUL10. BUL11. * BUL12. BUL13. BUL14.

Modern [[Croatia/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: croatia"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Croatia">croatia">
Modern [[Croatia
C1. C2. C3. Aspálathos C4. Epidaurus C5. Issa C6. C7. Pharos C8. Kórkyra Mélaina C9. C10. C11. C.12

Modern
CY1. CY2. CY3.Golgi

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Modern
E1.

Modern
F1. F2. F3. F4. Olbia F5. F6. F7. F8. Alalia F9. F10. F11. Pergantium
(1977). 9782700600759, Aubanel. .
Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine, p.734

Modern Georgia /
* Abkhazia is recognised only by Russia and a small number of other countries.

G1. G2. G3. G4. G5. Phasis G6.

Modern
GR1. GR2. Stageira GR3. Acanthus GR4. Mende GR5. GR6. GR7. GR8. GR9. GR10. Abdera GR11. GR12. Arethusa GR13. GR14. GR15. Sane GR16. GR17. GR18. Sane GR19. Akanthos GR20. Astacus GR21. Galepsus GR22. GR23. GR24. Datus GR25. GR26. GR27. GR28. Dicaea GR29. Methoni GR30. Heraclea in Trachis GR31. Heraclea in Acarnania GR32. GR33. Sale GR34. Drys GR35. GR36. GR37. GR38. GR39. GR40. GR41. GR42. GR43. GR44. GR45. GR46. GR47.

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Modern
I1. I2. I3. I4. Parthenope I5. I6. I7. I8. I9. I10. I11. I12. I13. I14. Siris I15. I16. Gallipoli I17. I18. I19. I20. Syracuse I21. Didyme I22. I23. I24. I25. I26. Epizephyrian Locris I27. I28. I29. I30. I31. Naxos I32. I33. I34. I35. I36. I37. I38. I39. I40. Kamarina I41. I42. I43. I44. Caulonia I45. I46. Pyxous I47. I48. Laüs I49. Terina I50. I51. I52. Macalla I53. Temesa I54. I55. I56. I57. Saturo I58. , Siris I59. I60. I61. I62. I63. I64. I65. I66. I67. I68. I69. I70. I71. I72.
(2025). 9781108082204, Cambridge University Press. .
I73. Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, 429.7 I74.

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Modern
L1. Barce L2. Cyrene L3. Balagrae L4. L5. Ptolemais L6. Euesperides L7. L8. Apollonia L9. Cinyps L10.

Modern [[Montenegro/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: montene"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Montenegro">montene">
Modern [[Montenegro
M1.

Modern [[North Macedonia/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: north_m"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[North Macedonia">north_m">
Modern [[North Macedonia
* Some historians believe that it was near the modern Resen (North Macedonia)Barrington atlas of the Greek and Roman world: map-by-map directory, Tome 1,by Richard J. A. Talbert,page 758,near Resen?The Illyrians by John Wilkes,page 128,"north or northeast of ohrid"The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology) by Z. H. Archibald, 1998, , page 107,"of Paion- ian Damastion" while another believe that it was near the modern (Serbia).

MA1. * MA2. Heraclea Lyncestis

Modern Palestine ()
  • Anthedon (Palestine), probably a colony of Anthedon (Boeotia) from Article references a book and an exhibition: Gerald Butt (1995), Life at the Crossroads: A History of Gaza, and "Gaza at the Crossroads of Civilizations" (2007) at the Musée d'art et d'histoire in Geneva. Les Villes Philistines, Gaza, Ascalon(in French), at antikforever.com.

Modern [[Romania/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: romania"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Romania">romania">
Modern [[Romania
RO1. Tomis RO2. Histria/Istros RO3. RO4. Stratonis RO5. Axiopolis RO6.

Modern
RU1. RU2. RU3. RU4. RU5. RU6. RU7. RU8. RU9. RU10. Patraeus RU11.

Modern
* Some historians believe that it was near the modern Resen (North Macedonia) while another believe that it was near the modern (Serbia).

SE1. *

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Modern
S1. S2. S3. S4. Hemeroscopeum S5. S6. S7. Rhode S8. Emporion S9. S10. Mainake Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854), Maenaca S11. Menestheus's Limin S12. Kypsela S13.

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Modern
SY1. SY2. The Origins of the Kouros, Rebecca Ann Dunham, University of Florida

Modern
TR1. TR2. TR3. TR4. TR5. TR6. TR7. TR8. Selge TR9. TR10. TR11. TR12. Tralles TR13. TR14. TR15. Side TR16. TR17. TR18. TR19. Mallus TR20. Amos TR21. TR22. TR23. TR24. TR25. Berge TR26. Perinthos TR27. Cardia TR28. TR29. TR30. Abydos TR31. TR32. TR33. Panormos TR34. TR35. TR36. TR37. Sinope TR38. TR39. TR40. Tripolis TR41. Xenophon, Anabasis, 5.5.3 TR42. TR43. Pharnakia TR44. TR45. TR46. Themiscyra TR47. Astacus in Bithynia TR48. TR49. Pitane TR50. TR51. TR52. TR53. TR55. Colophon TR56. Patara TR57. TR58. TR59. TR60. TR61. TR62. TR63. TR64. Notion TR65. TR66. Heraion Teichos TR67. TR68. TR69. TR70. TR71. Limnae TR73. Crithote TR74. TR75. TR76. TR77. TR78. TR79. TR80. TR81. TR82. Apollonia TR83. Apollonia ad Rhyndacum TR84. Myrina TR85. Pythopolis TR86. TR87. TR88. TR89. TR90. TR91. TR92. Mallus TR93. TR94. TR95. Athenae TR96. Syrna TR97. Cyme TR98. TR99. Chrysopolis TR100. TR101. Artace TR102. TR103. TR104. TR105. Kydonies TR106. TR107. Heraclea (Aeolis) TR108. TR109. TR110. Elaea TR111. TR112. TR113. TR114. Prusias ad Hypium TR115. Dardanus TR116. TR117. TR118. TR119. Aigai TR120. TR121. TR122. TR123. TR124. TR125. TR126. TR127. TR128. TR129. TR130. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Al Mina TR131. Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, A20.12, Agoresos

Modern [[Ukraine/" itemprop="url" title="Wiki: ukraine"> <hr class="us2411627114"> <span class="us3003804241 us1353177739">Modern [[Ukraine">ukraine">
Modern [[Ukraine
* According to , were originally Greeks who settle away from the coastal emporia among the Budini and their language evolved into half Greek and half Scythian. Pavel Jozef Šafárik wrote that they might be Greeks among the Slavs and Fins (Μιξέλληνες - half Greeks half barbarians).

U1. U2. U3. Olbia U4.

(2025). 9789004120419, Brill.
U5. U6. U7. Nymphaion U8. U9. U10. U11. Charax U11. U12. U13. U14. U15. U16. Akra U17. U18. * U19.

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